A German company is spinning fibres out of milk. Qmilk, was founded by Anke Domaske as she was looking for non-allergenic fabrics for her cancer-sufferer father.
After having seen a YouTube video on milk fibres, she found that the old process was too chemically laden for what she needed but that a more environmentally friendly process could produce a fibre so innocuous you could eat it.
It works 'like a big noodle machine,' according to Domaske. 'You add the protein powder – it looks like flour – to water and you mix it into a dough. Then there's a nozzle at the end with teeny tiny holes that put out textile fibres instead of noodles.'
'You can use any kind of milk but the safest, right now, is cow milk that's just turned sour.
'We need to have it sour to separate the protein. We get ours in powder form from dairies but we're revamping our collection system. '
The University of Berlin has found that Germans throw away around 2m tonnes of milk each year. Milk consists of more than 200 vitamins, minerals and proteins that can be processed and turned into resources. If the future of food waste is turning it into something useful, then Qmilk fills a gap in a market that might unwittingly turn a blind eye to sustainable options.
A reliance on sour milk might not seem scaleable but Domaske is adamant that current German dairy waste is enough to dress the whole US in a t-shirt.
It feels like silk and if the mildly erotic promo video on their site is anything to go by, you can stick a naked model in a milk bath and have her come out of it dressed in a flowing Athenian frock. One of its major advantages is it's antibacterial properties. Like silk, it's also temperature regulating, light, absorbent, compostable and flame resistant.
'We only need a maximum of two litres of water and an 80°C temperature [to make 1kg of textiles]. We have low waste and the process takes five minutes. Everything in the manufacture of Qmilk uses 100% natural and renewable resources,' Domaske stresses.
'We have a transparent production chain. The press is welcome to film it and we know where all our milk comes from. To be sustainable we understand that people want to look behind the scenes.'
'Our vision is to have a zero waste process that stretches right back to our resources … so who supplies us. What we do at the moment is turn our waste into powder which either goes back into our research or is delivered as a biological additive for the plastic industry.'
'I would like to build our collection system and spread the idea worldwide,' she says in a hurried exchange.
'Milk has over 200 ingredients which gets wasted when milk isn't sold. I'd like to use this as a resource.'
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A textile[1] is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers (yarn or thread). Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands.[2] Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting or tatting, felting, or braiding.
The related words 'fabric'[3] and 'cloth'[4] and 'material' are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres, including carpeting and geotextiles. A fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods (garments, etc.). Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric that has been processed.
- 4Sources and types
Etymology[edit]
The word 'textile' is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning 'woven', from textus, the past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'.[5]
The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, most recently from the Middle Frenchfabrique, or 'building, thing made', and earlier as the Latin fabrica 'workshop; an art, trade; a skilful production, structure, fabric', which is from the Latin faber, or 'artisan who works in hard materials', from PIEdhabh-, meaning 'to fit together'.[6]
The word 'cloth' derives from the Old Englishclað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz (compare O.Frisian 'klath', Middle Dutch 'cleet', Dutch 'kleed', Middle High German 'kleit', and German 'kleid', all meaning 'garment').[7]
History[edit]
The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the ice ages. Then at some point people learned to weave plant fibers into textiles.
The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times.[8][9]
The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. However, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.
Uses[edit]
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting and embroidery.
Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc oxidenanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of 'self-powering nanosystems' using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements.[10][11]
Sources and types[edit]
Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute, bamboo), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic, rayon). The first three are natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.
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Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the sturdiest canvas. Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive terms, from light gauze-like gossamer to heavy grosgrain cloth and beyond.
Animal[edit]
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the silkworms case).
Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.[citation needed]Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.
Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox.
Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE.
Sea silk is an extremely fine, rare, and valuable fabric that is made from the silky filaments or byssus secreted by a gland in the foot of pen shells.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk (wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.[12]
Plant[edit]
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.
Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.
Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper.
Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in clothing. Piña (pineapple fibre) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax.
The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
Rayon is a manufactured fabric derived from plant pulp. Different types of rayon can imitate the feel and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.
Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres.
Mineral[edit]
Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, 'transite' panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with Teflon to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States space suits since 1968.[verification needed]
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave.
Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery cloth, a layer of emery abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, 'sand cloth' is a U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarse sandpaper.
Synthetic[edit]
Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of geotextiles.
Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools,[14] including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras, and swimsuits.
Olefin fibre is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek.
Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.
Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.[15] Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre.[16]
Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization.
Production methods[edit]
Top five exporters of textiles—2013 ($ billion) | |
---|---|
China | 274 |
India | 40 |
Italy | 36 |
Germany | 35 |
Bangladesh | 28 |
Source:[17] |
Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads (called the warp) with a set of crossing threads (called the weft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.
Knitting, looping, and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting needle, needle, or on a crochet hook, together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop, while Looping and crocheting never have more than one active loop on the needle. Knitting can be performed by machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.[18]
Spread Tow is a production method where the yarn are spread into thin tapes, and then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used for composite materials; spread tow fabrics can be made in carbon, aramide, etc.
Braiding or plaiting involves twisting threads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying threads together and is used in making tatting and macrame.
Lace is made by interlocking threads together independently, using a backing and any of the methods described above, to create a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine.
Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.
Felting involves pressing a mat of fibres together, and working them together until they become tangled. A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibres, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool.
Nonwoven textiles are manufactured by the bonding of fibres to make fabric. Bonding may be thermal or mechanical, or adhesives can be used.
Bark cloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.
Treatments[edit]
Textiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every colour. The dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.[19] Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), creating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric. Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in China. Textiles are also sometimes bleached, making the textile pale or white.
Textiles are sometimes finished by chemical processes to change their characteristics. In the 19th century and early 20th century starching was commonly used to make clothing more resistant to stains and wrinkles.
Eisengarn, meaning 'iron yarn' in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The end result of the process is a lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.[20][21]
Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as permanent press process, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.[22] More recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing permanent treatments based on metallic nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.[23]
Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From formaldehyde finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes (for example) have been shown to be allergenic to sensitive individuals.[24] Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.[25]
Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,[26] due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity, are concerned.[27] Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories, it is also possible to have textiles tested for according to the Oeko-tex certification standard which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.
See also[edit]
- Textile manufacturing (terminology)
- Textiles of Lampung / Mexico / Oaxaca
References[edit]
- ^'Textile'. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 2011-11-09. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
- ^'An Introduction to Textile Terms'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on July 23, 2006. Retrieved August 6, 2006.
- ^'Definition of FABRIC'. Archived from the original on 2017-10-19. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
- ^'Cloth'. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
- ^'Textile'. The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
- ^Harper, Douglas. 'fabric'. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
- ^Harper, Douglas. 'cloth'. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
- ^Balter, M. (2009). 'Clothes Make the (Hu) Man'. Science. 325 (5946): 1329. doi:10.1126/science.325_1329a. PMID19745126.
- ^Kvavadze, E.; Bar-Yosef, O.; Belfer-Cohen, A.; Boaretto, E.; Jakeli, N.; Matskevich, Z.; Meshveliani, T. (2009). '30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers'. Science. 325 (5946): 1359. doi:10.1126/science.1175404. PMID19745144.Supporting Online MaterialArchived 2009-11-27 at the Wayback Machine
- ^Keim, Brandon (February 13, 2008). 'Piezoelectric Nanowires Turn Fabric Into Power Source'. Wired News. CondéNet. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
- ^Yong Qin, Xudong Wang & Zhong Lin Wang (October 10, 2007). 'Letter/abstract: Microfibre–nanowire hybrid structure for energy scavenging'. Nature. 451 (7180): 809–813. doi:10.1038/nature06601. PMID18273015. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13. cited in 'Editor's summary: Nanomaterial: power dresser'. Nature. Nature Publishing Group. February 14, 2008. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
- ^Trevisan, Adrian. 'Cocoon Silk: A Natural Silk Architecture'. Sense of Nature. Archived from the original on 2012-05-07.
- ^Art-Gourds.comArchived 2008-10-13 at the Wayback Machine Traditional Peruvian embroidery production methods
- ^Hammerskog, Paula; Wincent, Eva (2009). Swedish Knits: Classic and Modern Designs in the Scandinavian Tradition. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. ISBN978-1-60239-724-8. Archived from the original on 2017-11-23.
- ^Euroflax Industries Ltd. 'Euroflaxx Industries (Import of Textiles)'Archived 2010-01-13 at the Wayback Machine
- ^Fonte, Diwata (August 23, 2005). 'Milk-fabric clothing raises a few eyebrows'. The Orange County Register. Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved 2009-10-21.
- ^'India overtakes Germany and Italy, is new world No. 2 in textile exports'. Archived from the original on 2015-02-15. Retrieved 2015-02-03.
- ^Rowe, Ann Pollard (1997). Looping and Knitting. Washington, D.C.: The Textile Museum. p. 2.
- ^Green Inc. Blog 'Cutting Water Use in the Textile Industry.'Archived 2009-07-24 at the Wayback MachineThe New York Times. July 21, 2009. July 28, 2009.
- ^Industriegeschichte aus dem Bergischen land (in German). (Accessed: 27 November 2016)
- ^WDR digit project. Eisengarnfabrikation in Barmen.Archived 2016-11-28 at the Wayback Machine (Video (16 min) in German). (Accessed: 27 November 2016).
- ^'What makes fabric 'wrinkle-free'? Is it the weave or a special type of fiber?'. Ask.yahoo.com. 2001-03-15. Archived from the original on 2012-01-17. Retrieved 2011-12-04.
- ^'The Materials Science and Engineering of Clothing'. Tms.org. Archived from the original on 2012-01-21. Retrieved 2011-12-04.
- ^Lazarov, A (2004). 'Textile dermatitis in patients with contact sensitization in Israel: A 4-year prospective study'. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 18 (5): 531–7. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.00967.x. PMID15324387.
- ^Lazarov, A; Cordoba, M; Plosk, N; Abraham, D (2003). 'Atypical and unusual clinical manifestations of contact dermatitis to clothing (textile contact dermatitis): Case presentation and review of the literature'. Dermatology Online Journal. 9 (3): 1. PMID12952748.
- ^Scheman, AJ; Carroll, PA; Brown, KH; Osburn, AH (1998). 'Formaldehyde-related textile allergy: An update'. Contact Dermatitis. 38 (6): 332–6. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1998.tb05769.x. PMID9687033.
- ^Alaee, M; Arias, P; Sjödin, A; Bergman, A (2003). 'An overview of commercially used brominated flame retardants, their applications, their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible modes of release'(PDF). Environment International. 29 (6): 683–9. doi:10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00121-1. PMID12850087. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-10-28.
Further reading[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Textile |
Look up cloth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Textiles and Fabrics. |
- Fisher, Nora (1994). Rio Grande Textiles (Paperbound ed.). Museum of New Mexico Press. ISBN0890132666. Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as colour plates. Fisher is Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes of the Museum of International Folk Art.
- Good, Irene (2006). 'Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia'. In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 191–214. ISBN978-0-8248-2884-4.
- Arai, Masanao (Textile Industry Research Institute of Gunma). 'From Kitsch to Art Moderne: Popular Textiles for Women in the First Half of Twentieth-Century Japan' (Archive). Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. Textile Society of America, January 1, 1998.
BERLIN (Reuters) - A young fashion designer from the German city of Hanover is revolutionizing high fashion by designing clothes with a staple she can find in her fridge — milk.
Fashion designer and microbiologist Anke Domaske poses with a pitcher of milk, milk fiber and milk yarn in Hanover, October 5, 2011. REUTERS/Fabian Bimmer
Anke Domaske, 28, has developed a fabric called QMilch made from high concentrations of the milk protein casein — the first man-made fiber produced entirely without chemicals.
“It feels like silk and it doesn’t smell — you can wash it just like anything else,” Domaske told Reuters.
Made from all natural materials, the QMilch fabric is ecological but also has many health benefits, said Domaske, who also said the amino acids in the protein are antibacterial, anti-aging and can help regulate both blood circulation and body temperature.
Domaske’s fashion label Mademoiselle Chi Chi — a favorite among the likes of Mischa Barton and Ashlee Simpson — has now started weaving the milk fiber into its collection.
Currently the MCC clothes — which feature flowing wrap dresses with edgy cuts and bright patterns — are made from a combination of various fibers, including QMilch. But Domaske plans to design a collection made entirely from the milk fiber.
Milk fabric has been around since the 1930s but was always produced in unecological ways that used a lot of chemicals. Unlike earlier prototypes, QMilch is made almost entirely from casein.
“We have developed an all-natural fiber consisting of a very high concentration of casein, with a few other natural ingredients — and in only two years,” the former microbiology student Domaske said.
The casein is extracted from dried milk powder and then heated up in a type of meat-mincing machine with other natural ingredients. The fiber comes out in strands and is then spun into yarn on a spinning machine.
Domaske said it would take about 6 liters of milk to produce an entire dress, which costs about 150 euros($199) to 200 euros.
Luckily, for that kind of money, the clothes don’t come with an expiry date — during the heating process, the molecules bind in such a way that the protein won’t decompose.
Due to its anti-bacterial qualities, the milk fiber can also be used in medicine and makeup. Even some auto companies have looked into using the fiber for car upholstery.
($1 = 0.753 Euros)
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Reporting By Natalia Drozdiak, editing by Paul Casciato
Spider silk’s qualities are nearly mythical. Its tensile strength is comparable to steel’s. Yet it is lighter, and can be as stretchy as a rubber band. Those traits in combination make it tougher than Kevlar. To give you an idea: If the spider webs that shoot from Spider Man’s wrists were real spider silk, the superhero could genuinelyhave pulled the runaway train to a halt in that dramatic scene in Spider Man 2.
So it’s no surprise that the race is on to create a synthetic version.
After years of hype and false starts, including one now-bankrupt effort that involved genetically modified goats producing it in their milk, a few companies think they’ve figured it out. The two leading the pack are Spiber, a Japanese company, and a California-based startup called Bolt Threads. Bolt Threads believes it has the edge, and that spider silk is only the beginning of what it can do.
“We make protein microfibers, and they are inspired by nature, starting with spiders,” says Sue Levin, Bolt Threads’ chief marketing officer. “But we can riff off that in literally infinite directions.”
A real spider generates silk in specialized glands in its abdomen, and creates the silk strands using a spinning organ called a spinneret. Some spiders produce up to seven types of silk, each with its own purpose and attributes.
But unlike silkworm silk, which silkworms produce to make their cocoons (the stuff used for diaphanous dresses and smart neckties), spider silk can’t be farmed in large quantities because spiders are cannibals, and will eat one another in close quarters.
Bolt Threads doesn’t use spiders to make its silk. The principal ingredients are genetically modified yeast, water, and sugar. The raw silk is produced through fermentation, much like brewing beer, except instead of the yeast turning the sugar into alcohol, they turn it into the raw stuff of spider silk. Bolt Threads spins that into threads using a method similar to the wet-spinning process used to create cellulose-based fibers such as Lyocell. Levin says it’s molecularly the same as natural spider silk, except for a few deliberate variations that only a chemical biologist would recognize.
Synthetic spider silk could be used for everything from automobile parts to medical devices to performance outdoor gear, which is the area that’s attracting some of the most attention thus far. Bolt Threads recently announced a $50 million round of funding, as well as a new partnership with the outdoor brand Patagonia, which demonstrates a major vote of confidence in its technology.
Neither Bolt Threads nor Patagonia will give details on what products they’re working on just yet, but Matt Dwyer, Patagonia’s director of material innovation, promises when something does come out, it will be “awesome.”
“We think they’ve cracked the code,” he says. ”For them to have come up with this capability… is just the kind of stuff that blows your mind.”
Bolt Threads says it is on the verge of a decades-long textile revolution, similar to the one that the chemical giant DuPont kicked off in the 1930s when it invented nylon. Made from chemicals found in petroleum, nylon was the first true artificial fiber. It led to many of the synthetics used in our clothes and just about everywhere else today, including polyester, Lycra, and Kevlar, the materials that make up the growing high-performance clothing industry.
“It all comes basically from the same building blocks,” Levin says of those DuPont creations. “That’s exactly what we’re saying, except our building blocks are proteins, not hydrocarbons.”
What that means is the company can theoretically mimic, or even improve upon, any natural, protein-based fiber, such as wool. Natural fibers have evolved for performance over thousands of years. They can be tougher, as well as more comfortable, than synthetics.
Steve Arcidiacono, a microbiologist at the US Army’s Natick Solider Systems Center, which researches and develops products such as clothing for soldiers, says the US military has been following the progress of companies such as Bolt Threads, as well as supporting development of synthetic spider silk itself. “With genetic engineering, they can engineer functionality right into the fiber,” he says.
He believes it’s “theoretically” possible for manmade, protein-based fibers to replace some widely used synthetics, such as nylon. The appeal to the US military is clear. It relies on nylon for its strength, but when heated enough, nylon melts rather than burns. That’s dangerous for soldiers in combat situations. Protein-based fibers don’t do that, and could be lighter and stronger.
The issues holding back manmade spider silk have always been producing it in large quantities and developing the right spinning process. Arcidiacono believes that if these companies have solved these issues as they claim, we could see their products appearing in targeted applications first, and then spreading widely through the consumer market.
Protein-based synthetics have another big advantage: They’re far more sustainable than products derived from oil. The ingredients are all renewable, and unlike petroleum-derived fabrics, they’re biodegradable. Bolt Threads says its silk also requires fewer toxic chemicals for dyeing, which is one of the dirtiest parts of making fabric. And because the company is developing new manufacturing methods just to create their product, the goal is to build them to be cleaner than current technology.
Most of Bolt Threads’ competitors use a different method, employing genetically modified E.coli bacteria to create their silk. Spiber uses E.coli, too, though it says it uses different microorganisms depending on the gene sequences it wants to make. To date, the company says it has designed and synthesized more than 600 original proteins, based on types that exist in nature, but with some modifications to their amino-acid makeup.
Spiber has already made a spider-silk parka in collaboration with Goldwin, the Japanese sportswear brand that also serves as The North Face’s Japanese distributor. The Moon Parka is set to go on sale in limited quantities under The North Face name this year, but it’s not cheap—and that’s even when it’s priced lower than it should be. The version of the parka that uses conventional materials costs 80,000 yen ($768). A senior executive told Bloomberg that the synthetic spider-silk version should be priced “much higher,” but they’re limiting it to no higher than 120,000 yen, he said, so that people buy them.
Spiber’s other challenge is scaling up production. “We are currently at pilot scale, and working towards moving into mass production in the near future,” a spokesperson for the company said.
The company has more announcements forthcoming, but Bolt Threads may have some key advantages. Even though it won’t have a product on the market first, it’s already producing silk in kilos, and plans to start churning silk out on the order of metric tons this year. It plans to have some demo textiles and even a few products up for sale in the next 12 to 18 months, too. Levin says using yeast is also “significantly less expensive” than using E.coli. They expect their fabric to cost about as much as other premium fabrics, such as high-end wools or natural silk.
That’s where the real challenges lie for synthetic spider silk, whether it’s made by Bolt Threads, Spiber, or anyone else. It will likely only find a mass audience if it offers a performance advantage and is competitive on cost. Synthetics can range in price, but there are plenty of inexpensive options available, and it’s arguably not evident that spider silk could offer enough of a performance advantage in a jacket to justify the price premium at this point.
Both Levin and Dwyer at Patagonia emphasize one point over and over, though. They aren’t just thinking about the potential of protein-based synthetics over the next year. They’re thinking about it over the next decades.
A textile[1] is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers (yarn or thread). Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands.[2] Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting or tatting, felting, or braiding.
The related words 'fabric'[3] and 'cloth'[4] and 'material' are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres, including carpeting and geotextiles. A fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods (garments, etc.). Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric that has been processed.
- 4Sources and types
Etymology[edit]
The word 'textile' is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning 'woven', from textus, the past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'.[5]
The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, most recently from the Middle Frenchfabrique, or 'building, thing made', and earlier as the Latin fabrica 'workshop; an art, trade; a skilful production, structure, fabric', which is from the Latin faber, or 'artisan who works in hard materials', from PIEdhabh-, meaning 'to fit together'.[6]
The word 'cloth' derives from the Old Englishclað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz (compare O.Frisian 'klath', Middle Dutch 'cleet', Dutch 'kleed', Middle High German 'kleit', and German 'kleid', all meaning 'garment').[7]
History[edit]
The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the ice ages. Then at some point people learned to weave plant fibers into textiles.
The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times.[8][9]
The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. Cooking cocaine without baking soda. However, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.
Uses[edit]
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting and embroidery.
Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc oxidenanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of 'self-powering nanosystems' using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements.[10][11]
Sources and types[edit]
Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute, bamboo), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic, rayon). The first three are natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.
Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the sturdiest canvas. Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive terms, from light gauze-like gossamer to heavy grosgrain cloth and beyond.
Animal[edit]
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the silkworms case).
Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.[citation needed]Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.
Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox.
Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE.
Sea silk is an extremely fine, rare, and valuable fabric that is made from the silky filaments or byssus secreted by a gland in the foot of pen shells.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk (wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.[12]
Plant[edit]
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.
Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.
Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper.
Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in clothing. Piña (pineapple fibre) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax.
The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
Rayon is a manufactured fabric derived from plant pulp. Different types of rayon can imitate the feel and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.
Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres.
Mineral[edit]
Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, 'transite' panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with Teflon to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States space suits since 1968.[verification needed]
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave.
Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery cloth, a layer of emery abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, 'sand cloth' is a U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarse sandpaper.
Synthetic[edit]
What Is Milk Fiber Fabric By The Yard
Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of geotextiles.
Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools,[14] including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras, and swimsuits.
Olefin fibre is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek.
Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.
Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.[15] Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre.[16]
Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization.
Production methods[edit]
Top five exporters of textiles—2013 ($ billion) | |
---|---|
China | 274 |
India | 40 |
Italy | 36 |
Germany | 35 |
Bangladesh | 28 |
Source:[17] |
Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads (called the warp) with a set of crossing threads (called the weft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.
Knitting, looping, and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting needle, needle, or on a crochet hook, together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop, while Looping and crocheting never have more than one active loop on the needle. Knitting can be performed by machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.[18]
Spread Tow is a production method where the yarn are spread into thin tapes, and then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used for composite materials; spread tow fabrics can be made in carbon, aramide, etc.
Braiding or plaiting involves twisting threads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying threads together and is used in making tatting and macrame.
Lace is made by interlocking threads together independently, using a backing and any of the methods described above, to create a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine.
Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.
Felting involves pressing a mat of fibres together, and working them together until they become tangled. A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibres, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool.
Nonwoven textiles are manufactured by the bonding of fibres to make fabric. Bonding may be thermal or mechanical, or adhesives can be used.
Bark cloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.
Treatments[edit]
Textiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every colour. The dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.[19] Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), creating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric. Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in China. Textiles are also sometimes bleached, making the textile pale or white.
Textiles are sometimes finished by chemical processes to change their characteristics. In the 19th century and early 20th century starching was commonly used to make clothing more resistant to stains and wrinkles.
Eisengarn, meaning 'iron yarn' in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The end result of the process is a lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.[20][21]
Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as permanent press process, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.[22] More recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing permanent treatments based on metallic nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.[23]
Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From formaldehyde finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes (for example) have been shown to be allergenic to sensitive individuals.[24] Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.[25]
Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,[26] due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity, are concerned.[27] Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories, it is also possible to have textiles tested for according to the Oeko-tex certification standard which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.
See also[edit]
- Textile manufacturing (terminology)
- Textiles of Lampung / Mexico / Oaxaca
References[edit]
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- ^'An Introduction to Textile Terms'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on July 23, 2006. Retrieved August 6, 2006.
- ^'Definition of FABRIC'. Archived from the original on 2017-10-19. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
- ^'Cloth'. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
- ^'Textile'. The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
- ^Harper, Douglas. 'fabric'. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
- ^Harper, Douglas. 'cloth'. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
- ^Balter, M. (2009). 'Clothes Make the (Hu) Man'. Science. 325 (5946): 1329. doi:10.1126/science.325_1329a. PMID19745126.
- ^Kvavadze, E.; Bar-Yosef, O.; Belfer-Cohen, A.; Boaretto, E.; Jakeli, N.; Matskevich, Z.; Meshveliani, T. (2009). '30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers'. Science. 325 (5946): 1359. doi:10.1126/science.1175404. PMID19745144.Supporting Online MaterialArchived 2009-11-27 at the Wayback Machine
- ^Keim, Brandon (February 13, 2008). 'Piezoelectric Nanowires Turn Fabric Into Power Source'. Wired News. CondéNet. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
- ^Yong Qin, Xudong Wang & Zhong Lin Wang (October 10, 2007). 'Letter/abstract: Microfibre–nanowire hybrid structure for energy scavenging'. Nature. 451 (7180): 809–813. doi:10.1038/nature06601. PMID18273015. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13. cited in 'Editor's summary: Nanomaterial: power dresser'. Nature. Nature Publishing Group. February 14, 2008. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
- ^Trevisan, Adrian. 'Cocoon Silk: A Natural Silk Architecture'. Sense of Nature. Archived from the original on 2012-05-07.
- ^Art-Gourds.comArchived 2008-10-13 at the Wayback Machine Traditional Peruvian embroidery production methods
- ^Hammerskog, Paula; Wincent, Eva (2009). Swedish Knits: Classic and Modern Designs in the Scandinavian Tradition. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. ISBN978-1-60239-724-8. Archived from the original on 2017-11-23.
- ^Euroflax Industries Ltd. 'Euroflaxx Industries (Import of Textiles)'Archived 2010-01-13 at the Wayback Machine
- ^Fonte, Diwata (August 23, 2005). 'Milk-fabric clothing raises a few eyebrows'. The Orange County Register. Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved 2009-10-21.
- ^'India overtakes Germany and Italy, is new world No. 2 in textile exports'. Archived from the original on 2015-02-15. Retrieved 2015-02-03.
- ^Rowe, Ann Pollard (1997). Looping and Knitting. Washington, D.C.: The Textile Museum. p. 2.
- ^Green Inc. Blog 'Cutting Water Use in the Textile Industry.'Archived 2009-07-24 at the Wayback MachineThe New York Times. July 21, 2009. July 28, 2009.
- ^Industriegeschichte aus dem Bergischen land (in German). (Accessed: 27 November 2016)
- ^WDR digit project. Eisengarnfabrikation in Barmen.Archived 2016-11-28 at the Wayback Machine (Video (16 min) in German). (Accessed: 27 November 2016).
- ^'What makes fabric 'wrinkle-free'? Is it the weave or a special type of fiber?'. Ask.yahoo.com. 2001-03-15. Archived from the original on 2012-01-17. Retrieved 2011-12-04.
- ^'The Materials Science and Engineering of Clothing'. Tms.org. Archived from the original on 2012-01-21. Retrieved 2011-12-04.
- ^Lazarov, A (2004). 'Textile dermatitis in patients with contact sensitization in Israel: A 4-year prospective study'. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 18 (5): 531–7. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.00967.x. PMID15324387.
- ^Lazarov, A; Cordoba, M; Plosk, N; Abraham, D (2003). 'Atypical and unusual clinical manifestations of contact dermatitis to clothing (textile contact dermatitis): Case presentation and review of the literature'. Dermatology Online Journal. 9 (3): 1. PMID12952748.
- ^Scheman, AJ; Carroll, PA; Brown, KH; Osburn, AH (1998). 'Formaldehyde-related textile allergy: An update'. Contact Dermatitis. 38 (6): 332–6. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1998.tb05769.x. PMID9687033.
- ^Alaee, M; Arias, P; Sjödin, A; Bergman, A (2003). 'An overview of commercially used brominated flame retardants, their applications, their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible modes of release'(PDF). Environment International. 29 (6): 683–9. doi:10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00121-1. PMID12850087. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-10-28.
Further reading[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Textile |
Look up cloth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Textiles and Fabrics. |
- Fisher, Nora (1994). Rio Grande Textiles (Paperbound ed.). Museum of New Mexico Press. ISBN0890132666. Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as colour plates. Fisher is Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes of the Museum of International Folk Art.
- Good, Irene (2006). 'Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia'. In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 191–214. ISBN978-0-8248-2884-4.
- Arai, Masanao (Textile Industry Research Institute of Gunma). 'From Kitsch to Art Moderne: Popular Textiles for Women in the First Half of Twentieth-Century Japan' (Archive). Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. Textile Society of America, January 1, 1998.